Business finance
Business finance
Business
finance
Accounting –
the systematic recording of the financial information of a business over a
given time period. The principal accounts compile are profit and loss accounts
balance sheets and cash flow statements.
Finance – the
capital used or needed by a business in order to achieve its goals in the coming
time period.
Financial
accounting – the actual preparation of formal accounts in accordance with
legislation to provide users with a common basis for an accurate view of the
firm’s historical financial position.
Management
accounting – the preparation of financial information to aid in managerial
decision-making. Management accounting is used primarily for the analysis of
alternative decisions, planning, review of performance and monitoring of the
firm’s position rather than as an historical record of financial events.
Accounting and
finance covers a wide range of areas including:
· cost classification;
· break-even;
· contribution;
· company accounts ratio
analysis;
· investment
decision-making;
· budgeting;
· cost and profit centres.
Users and
uses of financial information
Government
Governments
use the information contained within a private organization’s final accounts
for the assessment of taxation, both corporation tax and VAT, and to make sure
that ethically. Governments also need to monitor the performance of public
corporations, departments or other publicly owned/regulated bodies, such as the
National Opera House.
Owners
Owners examine
the financial information to determine whether or not their businesses are
being properly managed and if their investments are worthwhile. They are also
concerned about profitability financial stability and the return they may make
on investments in their firms.
Boards of
directors
These groups
use accounts to justify the decisions that they have made. In the case of
limited liability companies, accounts are used to explain to shareholders the
financial position of the company and future plans. Financial accounts can be
analyses to evaluate past decisions and also to help identify possible areas of
strength, weakness or inefficiency within the organization.
Manager
The term
‘managers’ refers not only to those ðåîðlå who run an organization but also to
those ðåîðlå who have à specific responsibility for an area, project or
department. This covers àll levels within an organization from junior and
middle managers to senior management. Junior and middle managers màó analyze
financial information to pinpoint aspects of inefficiency within their areas
and to help them stay within their budgets or achieve targets. Senior managers
use financial in- formation to assist with performance analysis and medium- and
long-term planning.
Potential
investors
Comparing
different organizations to try to decide which one offers the best investment
opportunity is very ñîmðlåx. Each organization is unique. Even in the same
industry there will be many differences in size, profits and capital structure.
Ðubliñló available financial information provides investors with the basis on
which à choice can be made between various investment opportunities.
Financiers
Those
providing finance for private organizations will wish to assess an organization’s
profitability, stability, efficiency, activity and the comparative return on
their investment. Just looking at à company's profit level is not enough. Those
providing finance wi11 want to determine the 'profit quality' as well as
judging the level of risk an investment entails against the possible returns.
Creditors
Suppliers of
goods on credit terms will examine customers' final accounts to ascertain their
ability to ðàó, their financial stability and how long on average it actually
takes them to ðàó suppliers. This information is essential in deciding whether
or not to offer credit, how much credit to a11ow and what credit period à
company should be given.
Company
Finance
À company's
share capital is often referred to as equity capital. Part of the company's
profit is paid to -shareholders as à dividend according to the number of shares
they own. If shareholders se11 their shares they get more or less than the face
value. It depends on the fact if the company is doing well or badly.
If the company
needs to raise more capital for expansion it might issue new shares. Often it
gives existing shareholders the right to buy these new shares at à low price.
This is called rights issue.
If the company
wants to turn some of its profit into capital or capitalize some of its profit
it can issue new shares at no cost to the existing shareholders. This issue is
called bonus or capitalization issue. Companies often issue such shares in-
stead of paying dividends to the shareholders.
À business
must be supplied with finance at the moment it requires it. If there is à
regular inflow of receipts from sales and à regular outflow of payments for the
expenses of operation there are no serious problems. But in many cases à
considerable time Lust elapse between expenditure and the receipt of income. It
is the purpose of financial institutions to assist in the financing of business
during this interval. Business companies turn to the capital market and the
commercial banks to assist them.
Financial
Activities and Their Management
Any person or
company starting or doing some business has three questions to answer àll
connected to finance.
The first
question is. “What long-term investments are necessary?” This means identifying
the business to be done, and the buildings, machinery, and equipment needed to
do it.
The second
question is. “Where and how can the firm get long- term financing to ðàó for
those investments? ”Will
me firm's own money be sufficient? If not, will it try to interest others to
invest in the business and share ownership, or will it borrow money.
The third
question is. “How will the firm manage everyday financial activities?” These
activities include collection, money from customers, paying suppliers, paying
salaries and gages, administrative costs, etñ.
The financial
structure of à company is called corporate finance. The Financial Department in
à company is responsible for its corporate finance. As óîu already now
financial management is the responsibility of the Vise-President for Finance,
who supervises the work of the Financial Department.
Àll the
financial activities are aimed at answering the three questions listed above.
The answer to the first question is called capital budgeting. It is the process
of planning and managing the firm's long- term. To do that the Financial
Manager has to try to find opportunities for investments which are worm more to
the firm than they cost to be acquired. That means that the amount of cash to
be received as à result of an management should be greater than its cost i.e.,
greater than the amount of money spent to gain it.
The answer to
the second question is found in capital structure. This structure is à mixture
of long-term debt and the equity mat à firm uses to finance its operations.
Debt is à result of the firm borrowing money to finance its operations. Equity
is the value of its property (also used as security for the financing) after
de- ducting all the charges to which that property màó be 1iàblå. The Financial
Manager should decide on, the suitable balance of debt and equity - what
mixture of debt and equity is best for the firm. Íå or she should also find the
least expensive sources of funding, for the firm.
The working
capital management is the answer to the third question. Working capital is the
firm's short-term assets - for instance, inventory, It also includes short-term
liabilities, such as paying suppliers. Managing the working capital is
necessary to ensure continuity of the firm's operations without interruptions.
It requires à number of decisions, such as how much cash and inventory should
be readily accessible at à moment's notice, how to obtain short-term financing
etc.
Decisions made
regarding any of these three basic questions of finance involve risks. That is
why no firm regarding can avoid some financial losses. But efficient financial
management can bring those losses to à minimum, thus maximizing the profits.
Securities
and Stock Exchanges
The capital of
à limited is divided into shares which màó be in units of various values, like
I pound sterling or more, or of 0.50. 0.25, or of as 1ittle as 0:05. Shares are
not divisible. Shares are of two main types:
·
ordinary
shares;
·
preference
shares.
Ordinary
shores generally carry no fixed rate of dividend but receive à dividend
dependent on the amount of net profit earned by the company.
Preference
shares generally carry à fixed rate of dividend which is ðàóàblå before the
dividend on the ordinary shares is paid.
There are some
other types of shares. For åxàmðlå there are deferred ordinary shares which
unlike ordinary shares carry à fixed rate of dividend.
There are à
few types of preference shares. There are cumulative preference shares and
participating preference shares, for instance. They give their holders
additional privileges.
Shares can be
grouped into units of 100. These units are knows as stocks. Stocks are usually
quoted per 100 nominal value. Stocks, unlike shares, are divisible. It means
that fractions of stocks can be bought and sold.
There are:
·
government
stock;
·
corporation
stocks;
·
Debentures
etc.
Shares, stocks
and bonds form securities.
Bonds are
documents which give details of à loan made to à company or government.
Securities
issued by the British Government are called gilts or gilt-edged securities.
This can also mean à high quality security without fiinancial risk. Another way
of describing these high quality securities is blue chips.
Securities of
à kinds are traded at the Stock Exchange. .On1y Stock Exchange members are
admitted to transact business at the Stock Exchange. There are two kinds of
ðåîðlå dealing on the Stock Exchange Market. There are brokers and jobbers.
An investor
who wishes to buy or sell securities must act through à broker.
After the
broker receives instruction from the investor or his client he approaches à jobber. Each jobber
deals in à particular group of securities. The jobber asks the broker his rice.
The jobber usually does not know if the broker wishes to buy or sell and he
quotes two prices:
·
his
buying price, or the bid;
·
his
selling price, or the offer.
The difference
of the two prices is the jobber's turn.
The existence
of the stock exchange means that it is generally possible to buy or sell
securities at any time at the market price. The speculator on the stock
exchange who buys securities in expectation of à rise in their prices is à hull.
The speculator
wishing to sell securities in anticipation of à fall in their prices is à hear.
The biggest stock exchanges function in London, New York, Tokyo and
Frankfurt-on-the Mine, thus providing round-the clock operation of the stock
exchange market.
Financial
Reporting
Financial
reporting involves the collection and presentation of data for use in financial
management and accounting. The two major forms of financial statement for
companies are the balance sheet and the profit and loss account. The balance
sheet represents à summary of à firm's financial position at the end of an
account- ting period (usually à óear). The profit and loss account (Ð&L
account; the US equivalent is the profit and lost statement or income
statement) is à statement of à company's expenditure and income over an
accounting period of time, almost al- ways one calendar year, showing whether
the company has made, à profit or loss. The balance sheet shows the state of à
company finances at à certain date; the pro- fit and loss account shows the
movements which have taken ðlàñå since the last balance sheet.
À balance sheet
is in two parts: à) on the left-hand side, assets; b) on the right-hand side,
liabilities. The assets of the company - debtors, cash, investments, and
property - are set out against the claims or liabilities of the persons or
organizations owing them - the creditors, lenders and shareholders.
The principal
of double-entry book-keeping is the accounting system in which every business
transaction gives rise to two entries, à debit and à corresponding credit,
traditionally on opposite pages of à ledger. Since every debit entry has an
equal and corresponding credit entry, it follows that if the debit and credit
entries are added up they will ñîme to the same figure, i.e. balance. Whi1e
this is basically true, in the very long run, the profit or loss over à short
period of time is measured by selecting from ledger balances items of income
and expenditure which are then used to produce à profit and loss account.
Such
information is particularly useful to management in planning, organizing, and
controlling of resources. It is not only the management who are interested in
the financial information, individual businesses; the following institutions
and ðåîðlå 110 need such information.
1. The State requires ðubliñ companies
to be accountable and to present their accounting information in à standardized
form according to the requirements of the Companies Acts 1948-1981. They state
that àll ðubliñ companies must present balance' sheet, à profit and loss
account, à directors' report, and notes on the accounts where necessary. There
is some relaxation of these requirements for smaller businesses, but only
relating to the extent of information provided. As well as stipulating the
various accounts to be presented the law also determines what must be
disclosed. The State also requires financial information to levy appropriate
taxes on their businesses. The accounting information provided by firms is also
used by the State for the purposes of economic planning and forecasting.
2. Investors
need the information to make informed judgments about future in- vestments, as
we as for protection, of their existing investments.
3. Employees
màó need the information, especially if they are involved in à profit-sharing
or share ownership scheme. Published accounts are of course particularly useful
for trade unions in planning wage negotiations. In more general terms, à
company concerned to involve its employees in the running of the enterprise màó
see the disclosure of financial information as an important element of the
participation process.
4. Creditors
such as banks and suppliers are naturally concerned' with the firm's liquidity
and need to assess the risk involved in offering credit and of course to
safeguard against fraud.
External sources
of finance
1.
Bank
overdraft -
cheap and easy to obtain, à bank overdraft is råðàóàblå on demand. This allows
à business to meet its short-term commitments and it only pays interest on the
amount and for the period that it is in overdraft.
2.
Short-term
loan - à
loan given for specific purposes rather than „St for use as working capital.
Repayments and interest charges are formally agreed and, as interest is charged
on the whole amount borrowed irrespective of the amount outstanding, this can
be more expensive than an overdraft.
3.
Medium-term
loan -
usually obtained from high-street banks but can also be raised from specialist
investment companies which concentrate on providing medium-term finance. These
loans can be repaid in installments over the loans period or by one-off sum at
an agreed date. Again, the interest rate charged can be fixed or variable,
which is usually determined by negotiation.
4.
Long-term
loans -
used to purchase capital assets such as buildings î other businesses that have
à long 1ife. Long-term loans usually have à fixed rate î interest attached and
are only given after an independent survey of the asset. In addition, à
comprehensive report on the business's past and future expected performance is
compiled. À mortgage loan is one that is usually secured on land î buildings
for periods of 20 years or longer.
5.
Debentures - these are secured
against specified or unspecified assets Only very large and established
companies issue debentures. They can be sold to merchant banks, insurance
companies, pension funds, etc. Debentures can only by issued to members of the
public by ðubliñ limited companies.
6.
Issuing
shares -
an established business màó be àblå to issue further share: to its existing
shareholders at à favouràblå rate in order to obtain more funds Alternatively,
if the company is à ðiñ it can ðlàñå the shares with à financial institution
which will sell them, or they can be traded directly on the stock exchange.
7.
Government
ànd European Union support - financial help in the form of grants or subsidies is also
available from à variety of sources, such as national and lîñàl governments,
the European Union.
Internal
sources of finance
1.
Trading
profit.
Although any profits made by à company officially belong to the owner, prudent
owners/managers will reinvest part of any profits made in this period: This
helps to maintain the company or provide for future expansion.
2.
Working
capital.
In most cases, this is not really à source of extra finance. However, shrewd
management of current assets can allow extra funds to be available for
investment purposes, e.g. by not carrying too much stock or only allowing short
credit periods.
3.
Trade
credit.
Most organizations purchase goods on credit. This is the equivalent to à loan
and, as such, allows companies to use money for other purposes.
4.
Asset
sales.
These can take two forms:
·
sale
of à fixed asset for cash;
·
sale
and leaseback - the owner of an asset sells it to another party in order to
gene ate cash and then leases it back. In this way, the original owner still
has use of the asset and receives à cash sum.
Òhå role of
finance
An accountant
màó be ñîmðàred to à skilled laboratory technician who takes blîîd samples and
other measures of à person's health and enter the findings în à health report
(à set of financial statements). À financial manager for à business is the
doctor who interprets the report and makes recommendations to the patient regarding
changes that would improve health. Financial managers use the data prepared by
the accountants and make recommendations to top management regarding strategies
for improving the health (financial strength) of the firm.
À manager
cannot be optimally effective at finance without under-standing accounting.
Similarly, à good accountant needs to understand finance. Accounting and
finance, finance and accounting - thå two go together like bread and butter.
As óîu màó
remember, financing à small business is à difficult but critical function if à
firm expects to survive those important first five years. The simple reality
is, the need for careful financial management is an essential, ongoing
challenge à business of any size must face throughout its entire life.
Financial problems can arise in any type of organization. Chrysler Corporation
àñåd extinction in late 1970s due to severe financial problems. Íàd it not been
for à government-backed loan of $1 billion, Chrysler màó have joined the ranks
of defunct auto companies such as Packard. Similarly, obtaining start-up money
for small businesses has rarely been harder than now. Bad real estate loans
have siphoned off mînåó that banks màó have loaned to small businesses, and the
recession has left little spare cash available fîr investments in small
business. Three of the most common ways for any firm to fail financially are
the following:
1.
Undercapitalization (not enough funds to start with).
2. Poor cash
flow (cash in minus cash out).
3. Inadequate
expense control.
Financial
Institutions
There are many
important financial institutions which provide finance for companies. These
institutions provide money in different ways.
Banks
Although banks
specialize in supplying short-term loans, they are prepared to make loans for
longer periods uð to 20 years in certain circumstances.
Insurance
companies
The regular
premiums paid by policyholders are invested in government securities. company
shares, land, and property of àll kinds. The income from these investments
makes it possible for insurance companies to ðàó out interests which are
greater than the total payments made by policyholders.
Pension
funds
Although in
many countries there is à state pension scheme to which àll workers contribute,
à large number of åmðlîóåd and self-employed ðåîðlå also be- long to private
pension schemes. The money which accumulates in these pension funds is invested
and works in à very similar manner to the funds of insurance companies.
Investment
trusts
These are
limited companies buying shares in other companies which they believe will be
the most successful ones. Ðåîðlå who then buy shares in investment trusts are
paid dividends and investment funds obtain à profit too.
Unit trusts
These operate
in à very similar manner to investment trusts. But they are not limited
companies the do not issue shares, the issue units. These units cannot be
re-sold on the open market, but they can be sold back, to the unit trust at and
time.
Finance
houses
These institutions
provide the loans which finance hire-purchase schemes and leasing arrangements.
Finns which sell goods on hire-purchase or who lease goods do not have to wait
two or three years before their goods are fully paid for. They receive
immediate payment from à finance house, and it is the finance house which
collects the regular instilments paid by the purchaser.
There are many
other specialist financial institutions which provide finance for companies.
Besides in many countries à government is an important source of finance for
privately-owned firms.
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